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Management of private security agencies in Nepal
(2025) Khatri, Amar Bahadur; Bhim Raj Suwal
Management plays a vital role in ensuring the efficiency, accountability and sustainability of organizations, including PSAs. As the demand for private security services increases in Nepal, effective management becomes crucial for optimizing human resources, operational strategies and technological adoption. Level of investment significantly impacts PSAs management as higher investment leads to structured training programs, professional workforce development and advanced technologies while lower investment results in poor service, weak regulatory compliance and limited resource allocation. Additionally, absence of a robust legal framework further complicates PSAs management, leading to operational inefficiencies and lack of accountability. This study explores the challenges faced by PSAs in Nepal focusing on investment disparities, regulatory gaps and workforce management. Using qualitative methods with an exploratory and descriptive design including interviews, key informant interviews and focus group discussions, the research identifies critical issues such as inconsistent operational standards, lack of coordination with government agencies and weak monitoring mechanisms,all of which are influenced by investment levels. The findings reveal that well-funded PSAs
demonstrate higher operational efficiency, better employee retention and enhanced technological integration but low-investment agencies struggle with resource shortages, high turnover rates and inadequate administrative oversight. Similarly the fragmented legal framework results in weak enforcement, unstructured operational guidelines and poor coordination between PSAs and state authorities. Introducing financial incentives and
investment policies will enhance technological adoption and workforce professionalism. Moreover, developing a comprehensive legal framework with strict licensing, monitoring and compliance mechanisms is essential for improving regulatory oversight and ensuring PSAs contribute effectively to national security. The study recommends policy reforms of existing policies for making comprehensive an apex law, investment in workforce development and improved monitoring systems. Strengthening legal provisions, ensuring digital record-keeping and aligning Nepalese PSAs with global best practices will help create a more structured and reliable security sector. Addressing these challenges will not only improve service quality but also ensure that PSAs function as an integral component contribute meaningfully to national security and public safety.
Keywords: Private security agencies, management, investment, legal framework, operational effectiveness
Social Capital and Performance of Cooperatives in Kathmandu
(2025) Dhakal, Ishwar; Surendra Mishra
This study examines the role of social capital in the success of savings and credit cooperatives in Nepal, focusing on four case studies: Thankot Mahila, Samudayik, Aayam, and Chandragiri cooperatives. Despite their growing importance in financial inclusion, many cooperatives struggle with governance inefficiencies, gender disparities, and financial sustainability. This research addresses a critical gap by analyzing how trust, networks, reciprocity, and shared norms contribute to cooperative performance while highlighting persistent challenges in equitable representation. Using a qualitative case study approach, the study combines financial data analysis (2079-2081), unstructured interviews with 16 stakeholders including board of members, managers, and members, and focus group discussions (FGDs) with 16 members. Thematic analysis and comparative financial metrics reveal key insights: (1) Cooperatives with balanced gender representation (e.g., Samudayik) achieve stronger financial outcomes (54% capital growth) than male-dominated models; (2) Externally networked cooperatives demonstrate greater resilience than locally insular ones; and (3) Institutionalized social capital—particularly transparent governance and member participation—correlates with long-term member loyalty (average 12 years). This study demonstrates that social capital serves as the bedrock of cooperative success, operating through four interconnected mechanisms that distinguish member driven finance from conventional banking models. Trust, institutionalized through transparent policies and long-term member relationships, reduces transaction costs and fosters financial resilience—evident in cooperatives like Samudayik, where high
trust correlates with 54% capital growth. Networks determine institutional adaptability; externally connected cooperatives access bridging capital for innovation, while locally embedded models like Thankot Mahila excel in bonding capital for targeted inclusion. Crucially, reciprocity transforms financial transactions into mutual commitments. The save-to-borrow systems observed across cases create inter generational solidarity, ensuring sustainability.
Keywords: Social capital, cooperatives, gender governance, financial inclusion.
Livelihood Diversification and Poverty Reduction in Panchkhal Municipality, Kavre
(2025) Adhikari, Amit; Tikaram Gautam
This study explores the relationship between livelihood diversification and poverty reduction in Panchkhal Municipality, Kavre, with a focus on how households adapt to changing socio-economic conditions by engaging in multiple livelihood strategies. Livelihood diversification is defined as the process by which rural families construct a diverse portfolio of activities and social support capabilities in order to survive and to improve their standards of living. Livelihood diversification, the process of engaging in varied income-generating activities, has increasingly become survival strategy for rural and semi-urban households in Nepal. As traditional subsistence farming proves inadequate to meet growing needs, diversification into non-farm, off-farm, and service-oriented occupations is becoming more prominent. This study explores the key livelihood diversification strategies employed by households, and captures how these shifts are associated with poverty reduction. A mixed-methods approach was used, combining quantitative surveys of 101 households and qualitative interviews with nine respondents consisting of local residents, cooperative members, and key informants. The research employed purposive sampling to ensure inclusion of households with varied economic backgrounds and experiences in diversification. Data were analyzed through descriptive statistics, thematically, and field-based interpretation. This explored how households diversify their income sources through agriculture, business, employment, and remittances. Findings highlight the crucial role of
diversified livelihoods in enhancing economic stability, improving living standards, and providing better access to education and healthcare. Findings show that households in Panchkhal have increasingly moved beyond traditional farming to embrace activities such as vegetable farming, animal husbandry, small-scale trade, foreign employment, and engagement in cooperatives and small businesses. Access to credit, local market integration, and skill development programs were found to be enabling factors. However, challenges such as lack of capital, inadequate skills, small
market size, and limited access to technology continue to hinder broader diversification. By using both descriptive statistics and inferential statistics such as Chi-square test and ANOVA, the study concludes that livelihood diversification has played a significant role in reducing household poverty by increasing income stability, improving access to education and health services, and enhancing food security. Nevertheless, its success depends on structural support, access to resources, and institutional linkages. Despite significant challenges such as lack of capital, skills, and access to financial services, the community demonstrates resilience and adaptability. Family and community support, including financial assistance and knowledge
sharing, significantly contribute to these efforts. The study underscores the importance of social capital, consistent with Bourdieu's
theory, in facilitating livelihood diversification. Respondents' future plans indicate a proactive approach to ensuring long-term economic stability through business expansion, agricultural mechanization, and investment in income-generating activities. The research concludes that addressing the challenges through improved access to finance, training, and infrastructure is essential for supporting households in their diversification efforts. This research contributes to understanding how localized strategies can foster economic resilience, and highlights the need for targeted interventions in training, financial access, and market development to further enhance the livelihood prospects of semi-urban communities in Nepal.
Key Words: livelihood diversification, livelihood strategies, social capital, poverty